Review the Laws Related to Security and Privacy of Data Essay

Computer Misuse Act 1990  This act was introduced to prevent users hacking. This also stops them entering a computer, programs or files without authorisation, this act is in place to prevent users to use the internet without permission to cause an act of crime and also prevents unauthorised modifications to a computer. This act does not allow any attacks on a server as this is illegal. Hacking into a computer is not allowed as it can disrupt the business as personal information can be stolen and also be used in crime, this can cause a problem in the businesses finance sector. Anyone who knowingly hacks into a computer with intent to steal information is going against this act. Anyone who misuses the computer in this way is going against the law as they are using it for criminal acts. This act also does not allow anyone to use a fraudulent credit card or any other card to make a purchase via the internet. Hackers who overload networks with data to intently disable them can face a prison sentence for up to 10 years. This act makes it illegal for users to upload pornography of someone and children as people will find the offensive, having possession or viewing these types of materials could get the user in to trouble by the law. Users must not use the computer to harass or stalk a particular person, it is also the same when making telephone conversations as the user can not use offensive or threatening language they can face a sixth month imprisonment. This allows the organisation to take action and take back whats rightfully there and also punish the hacker as they are covered by this law, this bring a sense of security as this law ould put the hackers from obtaining information wrongly. Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 This is the current UK copyright law which has been created since 1988, it gives artist and creators of, musical and dramatic or any other artist have the right to control their work, this allows them to have control over how their material is used, this right covers broadcast and public performance, copying, adapting, issuing, renting and lending copies to the public. It is not what has been created it’s the details within what has been created to be protected, for example if you have a idea for a book that would not be protected however the information and content within the book that is written will be protected. So someone else can write a book around your idea but they cannot copy your book or adapt your book to do so. This helps to protect security and privacy of data as it protects the effort money and time someone has put in to create their content, if this content is being copied the organisation will lose potential customers as someone is using their content to sell another product. Privacy and compensation requirements of Data Protection Act 1984 1998 2000 This legislation first was written in 1984 there are updated version of this data protection act and the one that is used and most updated is the 2000 version, the 1998 version was a broadened and replaced the data protection act 1984, the main purpose for this law is that it gives rights and privacy of individuals, this ensure that their data is not processed without the creators knowledge and is only process with the consent of the artist. This act covers personal data relating to living individuals and protects sensitive personal data of that individual. This act covers data held in electronic formats. This has been changed as over time new technology and items are able to store data this is now updated so that it can cover these items as they will contain sensitive and personal data to an individual. The 2000 version of this act contains added laws and have been updated. This protects the security of the individual as no one should be allowed to take private and sensitive data without the individual being aware of this. Copyrights This exclusive legal right that is given to the original artist to print, perform film, publish or record literary and authorize others to do so for heir material. This protects a physical expression of ideas , for example someone has an idea to write a book the content that is written in that book is covered by the copyright act as it will be unique to the creator. You do not need to register or claim copyright, this protection is automatic as soon as it is created. If someone steals information or wrongly sells other work or creation for their own financial benefit then this copy right act will protect the original creator and he can claim back the money that has been gained by the person who has taken the material without permission. This protects security and the use of private data as it does not allow anyone to take data or material without the author permission, if this does happen the user who has taken this material can be fined and prosecuted as the products does not belong to them, the author can also decide how his material has been used and if someone breaks his restriction they can also be prosecuted. Open Source  This is software or material that is available with the source, this allows users to copy the material and modify the material, the reason for this is because the creators would believe that if someone can edit the material for themselves it will be more useful to another persona and will also allow less problems to occur if the source is available, so organisation believe that it should not be given and source should not be shown, they usually give the compiled version this is so others cannot copy their material and modify this. Open source means that it is available to any one and they can modify it however they want, doing this will improve the security for a material such as software as this source code has been given to the users it will be less likely that someone would want to hack it and modify the code as it is already available. This does have some restrictions as it would like to preserve the name and authors of the material. Freeware  This is software that is offered free of charge and is downloadable off the internet, freeware is different to shareware as shareware would require payment. Even though freeware is available it does have a license this would have restriction as some freeware would not want the user to alter the program, repackage it or sell the freeware, redistribution is allowed of freeware but cannot be distributed for money purposes. The creators want to ive something to the community but want to retain control of any future development of the software, this allows users to have the material without making changes and is free to the users, this makes there coding private and cannot be used however as it is free hackers would not bother to steal or resell this type of material as anyone can get it online for free, this makes the software more secure as there is no risk as it does not hold any value. Shareware  This usually is software that is distributed, this allows users to use the product and then pay for the product after the trial version has finished, you can then only continue to use the full version if you feel like the product is good to use but will have to pay to get the full version, the user will then be covered for registration and then support for the software if they purchase, once purchased additional features are usually given as only who pay can have these. This is been protected under copyright, even though you are able to use this software without payment you are still restricted to what you are allowed to do with it which is selling this software or adding it to another. This allows users to use expensive and powerful software for free and a short period of time however will later need to pay as the trial reaches to its end. This relates to security and privacy as the creators do not mind users having a full version for a short period as they may see as an advantage to sell their product later, copyright protects shareware as users cannot manipulate or sell their product. Commercial Software This is a software that is designed for sale to meet a commercial need for a user, this type of software is only allowed to be used for commercial purposes, this is software that you would usually see in the retailers in a physical box and requires payment before it can be used, commercial software usually contain a registration key and when you purchase this you will acquire a licence to use it. You are still able to download commercial software and this can be often seen in sharewares. These are usually made available directly from the organisation website. This relates to security and privacy of data as the user has to purchase the software before they can use it as they will not receive a registration key not allowing them to use the software, this does make it a security risk as hackers will try to steal a registration key but the copyright act protects the organisation and can prosecute the hacker for stealing data from the organisation.

Customers bank Essay

For Businesses to survive they need to rely on customers buying their goods or services sales can also come from other businesses or members of the public. 1) Goods are what are sold to the customer . For example businesses like wholesalers and retailers sell goods. Goods are tangible things, they are used up. Goods are made up of materials like woods, food and cotton. 2) Services Services are sold also but are not tangible, you can’t see them. A service is a skill which is provided in order to help the customer or business. Services include National Health, Banking, Teaching and the police. 3) Business to business Businesses can offer their goods and service to other business. For example an airline company will purchase the services of a catering company. They do this so they don’t waste time making their own food. 4) Business to customer Business also sell goods and services to customers or individuals. For example banks offer their financial services to individuals who need loans or advice. Sales Documents 1) Order received ( see example 5) This document is produced by the supplier and is sent to the customer. This is used to conform with the customer what they have ordered. Details like the product description and how many they require are written down. 2) Sales Invoice (see Example 6) This document is sent to the customer to tell them how much they owe. Its similar to the purchase invoice and includes things like VAT and discounts. Also it includes the description of the product. The sales invoice is different because its’s only issued when a good has been delivered and has not paid for unless the customer has paid immediately. Delivery Note (see Example 7) A delivery note is given to the customer when the goods are delivered. The documents tells you what has been delivered and how many has been delivered. Also on it is the customers address so its similar to the goods received note. This document is a security measure so the right goods end up in the right place. The delivery note is given to the driver of the truck who deliver the goods and is then passed on to the customer. Sales Credit Note (see Example 8) This document is used by the customer in the event of an error in the supplied goods. For example if you bought a pair of shoes returned home and found a tear in them you can ask for a refund or accept a sales Credit Note. This would allow you to return to the shop in the future and exchange the note for a good or goods of the same value. The credit note is issued by the supplier and is sent to the customer. Statement of Account ( see Example 9) A statement of account is sent by a supplier to a customer. It states all transactions made in the month by the customer, any money outstanding, the total amount of money due on each invoice and the total balance which has to be paid. Remittance Advice (see Example 10) A remittance advice slip will often accompany the statement of account form. It is sent with cheque by the customer. This slip helps the supplier accurately process the payment when it is received. The supplier issues the remittance advice slip and the customer makes use of it by matching it with the invoice or statement of account and then sends it back with the cheque or other payment, this makes it easier for the supplier to match up cheque to invoices When you pay for something in cash you need some sort of proof you’re bought it. The proof you need is to collect a receipt. This is needed if you want to make a refund or if you want to exchange your product for something else. The receipt is written proof of your purchase and should include the following:- The date, Receipt number, Name of company, Description of the product, Amount paid (inc. VAT). A copy of the receipt is kept by the payee for their records and to provide evidence of VAT for recording purposes. Cheque (see Example 12) When you pay for something by cheque the cheque the cheque itself is a proof of purchase so a receipt is not needed. The cheque is similar to the receipt and will include the date and the amount. But the cheque also has the name of the person you are paying. The cheque will then be taken by that person to their bank to be cashed. A cheque is a receipt because when you pay by cheque shows up on your bank statement which acts as a receipt. Paying-in slips (see Example 13) Paying-in slips are used to put money into a bank account. This slip has a detachable section which is given with the cash and cheque the bank who place the money into the account. Left over is a section which is stamped to show that the money will be credited to our your account. On the slip is the amount deposited, the date and the name of the bank. Paying in slips vary from bank to bank. Banking statement (see Example 14 ) If you have a bank account you will also have a Bank statements. These are used to tell how much you have in your account, how much money you deposited and how much you have withdrawn and to see how much you invest you have earned It also tells you where and when you took your money out. Bank statements are basically used to keep track of your money. Cash is the most common way to pay. Its comes in two forms, coins and banknotes. In addition to this there are different note and coins which represent different amounts. Banknotes and coins can be copied or forged so it is wise to check the notes are genuine. Credit Card. Credit Card are alternatives to cash or cheques. They can be used at home and abroad wherever they are accepted. Instead of handing over cash or a transaction voucher by the customer. This voucher is then sent to the bank, who then sent the customer a statement saying hour much they owe. The statement usually takes a long time to arrive so the cardholder has time to come up with the money they owe. This is the interest free period, but interest is changed if the account is not cleared in that period. Debit Card A Debit Card is basically a cheque book and cheque card combined. At the point of purchase the money is debited from the customers bank account, after which a transaction voucher has to be signed by the customer so that company knows the right person has used the right card. Also so the company can keep a record of whom has shopped at their establishment. PC5 Importance of security It is very important that financial transactions are recorded clearly and accurately to protect them from theft, fraud and criminal damage . Security checks are there to prevent fraud, theft and to ensure high standards of honesty. By constantly checking records and by special equipment which can detect security checks.

Madeline Leininger theory integrated into the clincial practice Essay

Madeline Leininger theory integrated into the clincial practice - Essay Example Cultural care and universality was identified as being the missing link between the nursing profession and what was actually done in practice (Leininger, 1988). Creating an environment that is culturally acceptable for a patient will lead to a better experience in the hospital (Shaner, n.d.) One of the most important landmarks in the profession of nursing was the establishment of theories to guide the nursing profession and provide the framework for this profession (Leininger, 1988). The concept of ‘care’ as put forth by Leininger was accepted and wrought into the framework of the theories that guide the nursing profession (Shaner, n.d; Leininger, 1988). The theory of care is now a firm fixture in the nursing profession. Nursing students are taught to emphasise on ‘caring’ and accept that being sensitive to a person’s culture will lessen the gap between healthcare professionals and the patients they treat (Leininger, 1988). To conclude, Leininger came up with the concept of caring in the nursing practice which includes the ideas that understanding the culture and environment that a person comes from is vital in providing care. These ideas have now been firmly accepted in to the nursing profession and students are taught these guidelines. Shaner, H. (n.d). Nightingale Knew More Than She Thought-Â  Environment as a Phenomenon in Nursing:Â  Reflections from Nurse Theorists. Nightingale Institute for Health and the Environment. Retrieved from http://www.nihe.org/enviropn.html.

WK 2 forum Law enforcement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

WK 2 forum Law enforcement - Essay Example Police officers have an increased rate of suicide, alcoholism, and divorce than most other occupations. The extended costs to be paid from police stress are also astounding, with premature retirement, high absenteeism, lower rates of discipline, and disability. Stress also possesses hidden costs such as crisis management actions that the police require to redo their shift schedules and poor community relationships (Ellison, 2011). Most police personnel also tend to suppress stress, which has negative impacts on the police officers, their families, and ultimately their career. Suppression of stress eventually evolves into defensive mechanisms, for example, detachment of officers from their emotional lives (Ellison, 2011). This suppression benefits the police officer in the occurrence of crises, proving a systemic and validated way to release suppressed emotions especially after critical occurrences. However, the officers also suppress anger and frustration towards their supervisors, which causes questioning of their leadership skills. Police stress also leads to a high rate of divorce among police officers since they use work as a way to deal with their stress, thus staying away from home and accepting punishing shifts (Ellison, 2011). Suicide rates from stress related issues also have hard-hitting effects on families, as the officer may have been the sole breadwinner in the family. Spill over from demands at work, work family conflict, and emotional exhaustion leads to high marital discord rates, as well as divorce. Administrators in Police Departments have attempted to develop programs aimed at addressing the issue of stress among its personnel. This change has, however, been very slow because of the because of the bureaucracy inherent in most police departments Kearn (Kearney, 2009). First line supervisors carry a

Sex Education Among Young Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sex Education Among Young - Essay Example With the statistics presented, there is an understandable need for sex education for young adults. It is not only the married couples who need to be informed of the consequences of sexual activities if as young adults they engage in pre-marital and unprotected sex. Though the present world is also being referred to as the modern world, there are still nations and groups who are very conservative with regards to their way of thinking (Klein 40-5). It was during the early part of the 20th century that females started to gain attention to the world and the society. As this happens, males started to appreciate females. Females started to receive the same subjects in school in comparison to their male counterparts. There are certain subject matters that were added to the females’ curriculum to continue inculcating their traditional role in the society (Klein 47; Measor et al 1-2). Even in this conservative period, sex education has been introduced in high school curriculum. When the subject was introduced in school, considerations were made since there were recognized genders present during those times. The reason why the subject was introduced is to restrain the young male’s growing sexuality. At present, sex education is still being considered as one the most politicized and scandalous feature in an academe’s curriculum (Klein 47; Measor et al 1-2). Sex education during the adolescent period however is perceived to increase the curiosity of some young adults as to how the act itself would feel. Instead of controlling the budding sexuality, it even ignited more the curiosity of not just the males but also of the females as well. There has been an increase in sexually transmitted disease that the society would like to eradicate. As the 20th century progresses, the need for sexual education also advanced (Klein 47). During the late part of the 20th century, 19% of the

Empowerment in the Management Process Assignment

Empowerment in the Management Process - Assignment Example The first step of ensuring structured empowerment is through rewarding employees. Employees who work harder and perform better are given rewards such as bonuses or travel packages by the management. This, in turn, motivates the employees who work hard in ensuring the organization’s success (Blanpain 156). The second step the management can follow in ensuring success is through empowerment. Here, the management gives employees the power to air out their views, which can contribute towards the organization’s objectives. The employees give their views without any fear of victimization by the management (Blanpain 158). The third step involves training employees on the essentials pertaining to daily operations in the organization. Employees are trained so that they readily handle an emergency without seeking consultations from the management (Blanpain 156). The fourth and final step is organizational support. The employees become part owners of the organization, as they are allowed to own shares. The organization can also provide employees with moral or financial support in times of need (Blanpain 156).   Ã‚  Ã‚  

Terrorism Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Terrorism Case - Essay Example Its international relations with the Arab world would change immensely after the war as America tried to identify the perpetrators of the violence. Presently, the US Congress faces the challenge of how to protect, finance, and adequately respond to terror threats on airlines across the United States. Ideally, terrorist attacks tend to interfere with commerce and travel industry in that investors develop fear pertaining to the consequences of the launched attacks. Evidently, the terror attacks of September eleventh in 2001 have made airlines adopt stringent policies that have enabled the airline companies to reassure passengers of their safety abode their airplanes. With the attacks, Congress moved swiftly in a move to prevent future attacks on American soil as it passed the Act on Aviation and Transportation Security that saw the establishment of the Transportation Security Administration. With this act in place, security screeners had the authority to inspect the luggage of their prospective clients as part of the routine security checks (Conser, Paynich, & Gingerich, 2013). As per the act, airline security personnel had an entitlement to advanced screening equipment that could detect any security threat at any distance. As part of the checks, passengers also had to submit their identification details for scrutiny against the terrorist database as a way of limiting the ferrying of terrorists to other destinations and on terrorism. Cargo also did not fall short of the screening aspect in that cargo had to undergo intense checks to prevent the ferrying of terrorist merchandise. With this, the security levels in aircrafts and airports in general have strengthened although not to the highest intended level (Lee, 2013). Ideally, land, air, and marine systems of transport are the systems that have witnessed intense utilization in both America and other developing economies. They

APPLIED DECISION METHODS CLASS; MOD4; Regression Models discussion Essay

APPLIED DECISION METHODS CLASS; MOD4; Regression Models discussion - Essay Example Sales, and Price vs. Sales determined. Using computer software or excel, the coefficients can be generated and measures of goodness of fit determined hence assisting in drawing the scatter diagrams. Render et al. asserts that assessing the plots (measured and calculated values of the dependent variable) and can be used to determine the quality of the model (pg. 127). For a good and apposite model, the trends should not be very dissimilar, and if the difference between measured and calculated points is huge, an ostensible trend should exist. What’s more, in the residual plot, the residual values of the dependent variable should be arbitrarily scattered around the line err=0 and the mean should be zero (normality). For the model to be statistically valid and stable, the confidence intervals to be used should be significantly small. An awkward model yields inaccurate derivative values and impractical results for even smallest extrapolations. Additionally, for an appropriate model, the errors should have a constant variance that expedites the

The spanish company ZARA, is an example of globalization;how and why Essay

The spanish company ZARA, is an example of globalization;how and why - Essay Example Zara is one of such names as it has long been impacting the life of customers and the economies of many countries that it has maintained its business-base. This piece of research paper examines microeconomic concepts regarding economies of scale, profit strategies, effective use of resources and market forms in relation to Zara’s business and marketing landscapes. This paper aims to illustrate the global business aspects of Zara and explain how Zara has maintained sustainable business as well as competitive advantages. Zara International Inc. is the flagship brand for Europe’s fastest-growing apparel retailer, the Inditex (Industria de Diseno), one of the largest fashion and design retail groups in the world. It runs through more than 4,000 clothing stores in more than 70 countries and 400 cities worldwide (Plunkett, p. 237). Not only the retailing strategies, but also the marketing concepts and ideologies that Zara has been implementing for its business have become better business-model and academically significant strategies. Zara runs more than 200 kids shops in some 75 countries, and sells women’s, men’s and children’s apparel to its customers worldwide. (Yahoo Finance, 2011). As Tamer (p. 484) noted, Zara has emerged to be the leader in rapid-response retailing. Its in-house teams for designing and manufacturing its products produce fresh designs twice a week. The total turn-around time at Zara is just two weeks whereas its competitors have typically an 11-month lead time to move a garment from design to manufacturing. One of the main success factors that helped Zara achieve greater reputation and long term sustainable competitive advantage is that it has always been very fast and flexible in meeting market needs by integrating design, production, distribution and sales through out its own stores. The supply chain system of Zara International Inc is also lightning

Channeling Students into a Gifted Program Coursework

Channeling Students into a Gifted Program - Coursework Example This student requires an accelerated program or enriched learning option. These options offer the gifted student adequate curriculum content especially where the general curriculum is limited (McLeskey, Rosenberg & Westling, 2007). Secondly, if the student can manage and adapt to the demands of the rapid instruction and complexity of the content of higher-level classes, they can placed in the accelerated program. Thirdly, an assessment should be carried out to determine if the student is at risk to their social and emotional adjustment, if they are placed in an accelerated program (McLeskey, Rosenberg & Westling, 2007). If such a student can handle the emotional and social separation from their peers, then they can be placed in the accelerated program, otherwise the teacher can prepare extra content for them in their age-level class. Additionally, the acceleration of the student should be supported by teachers in order to eliminate any misconceptions to the student at higher levels. It is also vital that the grade skipping option still offers the student as must instructions as possible in order to prevent them from being disadvantaged in future learning activities (McLeskey, Rosenberg & Westling, 2007). Following the successful assessment, the student is then introduced to the education intervention option that matches their specific needs and behavioral characteristics. Possible interventions that can be factored in are content modification, complexity, abstraction, pacing, and documentation

Frankenstein - 1931 and 1997 Essay Example for Free

Frankenstein 1931 and 1997 Essay Horror genre, sympathy for Frankensteins creation and suspense Mary Wollstonecraft Shelly wrote Frankenstein in 1818. She was only 19 at the time. She had a unique upbringing as her mother was a radical feminist and her father was a politician. She then went on to marry Percy Bysshe Shelly who was a poet and helped her to write some of her book. Shellys book was thought to be the first horror/science fiction novel. There have been a number of productions of Shellys novel on stage and in 1931 there was a black and white movie about it, directed by James Whale. Then in 1997, Kenneth Branagh did his own production of the well-known novel. Scenes showing typical horror genre, sympathy for Frankensteins creature and scenes that create suspense are commonly found in the two movies of Frankenstein. The directors have used different media techniques to portray the movie in the way they want it to be viewed and interpreted by their choice of music, camera angles, special effects, editing, costumes, make-up, location and settings. The use of mise-en-scene is also important because if the things in the background dont match whats being acted the movie becomes unbelievable. Allowances like sound, colour and a few other things have to be made for the older versions of Frankenstein because the technology in the days it was made were very limited. By studying the birth scenes in both versions, the techniques used to create horror, drama and suspense and sympathy for the creature can be analysed. There are some similarities in both movies and some differences. First of all Ill explain the similarities and then the differences. In the Whale and Branagh versions both use low-key lighting to create a dark and spooky feeling. This is typical of horror movies and it can also create suspense because the audience cant tell what is around the corners. This creates suspicion, worry and uncertainty. It is also used because it connects with peoples fear of the dark. It is common to find bad weather in horror movies and this is evident in both of the Frankenstein movies. It is used just before and at the same time of the births. Whale and Branagh have used this technique because it gives a cold feeling and it gives credibility to what is happening in the foreground because the lighting, electricity is needed to make Frankensteins monster come alive. The locations of the births are quite typical too. In the Whale version its in a castle on top of a hill. Like House on haunted hill and it looks creepy and somewhere you would want to be. In the Branagh version its more like hell with cauldrons, heat and sweat. It reminds me of a witch brewing an evil poison. Both places for the birth are effective in creating a horror atmosphere but the second choice is less obvious. Non-diegetic, parallel fast background music can be heard in the birth scene in Branaghs version and this creates suspense because it gets peoples adrenalin going. But it is typically found in horror movies for this reason in particular. In the Whale version there is no music but this could be because of how old the movie is and it was hard to sequence the music with the scenes. In the Branagh version of Frankenstein one of the best ways sympathy is created for the creature is by the way he is presented to the audience. He looks almost human but has scars all over his face and body. It looks like someone who has been hurt badly and we feel sorry for him. On the other hand in the Whale version though its harder to feel sorry for Frankensteins monster because he looks less human and its harder to connect to him emotionally. In the Whale version Frankenstein is wearing a lab coat and his hair is gelled back. He looks more professional and like a proper doctor. This makes us feel sorry for Frankensteins creation because it shows that Frankenstein just sees him as an experiment and not as a human being with feelings. Whereas in the Branagh version he looks more wild and rough looking. This gives us the feeling he does care about the outcome of the monster because he has been so busy trying to make the monster alive that he has forgotten about himself and when he thinks the monster is dead he goes No, No, No, implying that he is saddened that it didnt work. In Branaghs version of Frankenstein you feel sympathetic with the monster when he is born, as he is naked, clumsy, and unable to walk. Amniotic fluid is everywhere and we watch Frankensteins monster slide and slip about. He appears vulnerable, like a baby. He cant control what hes doing and Frankenstein has to help him. This makes us pity him. This contradicts with the Whale version as we dont get to see the monster moving about, trying to touch or walk in the birth scene so we dont feel for him as much as he is still covered up and still practically lifeless.

Gluconeogenesis: Fructose 1, 6 Bisphosphatase Deficiency

Gluconeogenesis: Fructose 1, 6 Bisphosphatase Deficiency Ashley Woodin Introduction Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate is a key regulatory step in gluconeogenesis, as well as many other intracellular metabolic pathways. During gluconeogenesis there is an important process in which there is a conversion of glucose to pyruvate which is known as glycolysis. This process will require three irreversible steps that have a very high negative free energy that is in the forward reaction. So, in order to have a conversion from pyruvate into glucose, the pathway will require the use of enzymes, which will allow the bypassing of these irreversible steps. One of the enzymes that is used in this process is called Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase (Kelley, 2006). This step is a very important step in gluconeogenesis, being that it needs to have fructose bisphosphatase to catalyze the conversion of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate into fructose 6-phospahate, and inorganic phosphate, that without it can block the pathway. Its activity is high regulated by the levels of Adenosine Monophosphate, fructos e 2, 6-bisphosphate and also citrate (Kelley, 2006). When deficiencies are present in this pathway and devoid of this conversion, glycerol into glucose, it will lead to fasting hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis and other physiological conditions. This enzyme is highly active within the liver and the intestines. Therefore, when the liver glycogen stores are no longer available, the physical properties of the body will fight for its homeostasis (Eren, 2013) by converting a three carbon based molecule such as non-carbohydrate precursors, like lactate, glycerol as well as pyruvate, in order to maintain blood glucose levels (Eren, 2013). There is a physiological change in the body there is a need for glucose to be synthesized. When there is a high demand upon glucose synthesizes, the gluconeogenic pathway is increased exponentially. This demand typically occurs during high cardio, pregnancy and lactation (Wallace, 2002). There can also be an increase demand upon gluconeogenesis when the body is in a fasting state (Wallace,2002). Hypoglycemia has a high dependence upon gluconeogenesis formation, because it is the key metabolic pathway which will protect this physiological problem. Moreover, hypoglycemia is a very life-threating situation. Within the gluconeogenesis metabolic pathway, Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase is very crucial; as it aids in biochemical reactions and many of the physiological functions of the body. Structure and Properties Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate with six carbon sugar molecules is also known as the Harden-young ester, it has fructose sugars which are phosphorylated on the C1 and C6 (Diwan, 2006). However, before this step can be achieved it needs to start from the beginning in gluconeogenesis. It is important to note that glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are not reversed pathways. It’s clear to see that glycolysis and gluconeogenesis will have a lot of the same enzymes embedded within each other; however these two functional pathways are not the reverse of each other. Moreover, the irreversible steps, that are high exergonic, in glycolysis are bypassed in the gluconeogenesis pathway (Berg JM, 2002). In fact, each of the pathways is so tightly controlled by the intercellular as well as the intracellular signals, and they are highly regulated so that glycolysis and gluconeogenesis will not occur in the same cell at the same time (Berg JM, 2002). Looking at the glyconeogenic pathway the ability to see that there is a conversion of pyruvate into glucose (Berg JM, 2002). These conversions are achieved by Non-carbohydrate precursors of glucose, in which they are either first being converted into pyruvate, or they will enter the pathway at later pathway intermediates like oxaloacetate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate . There are currently three major non-carbohydrate precursors that are looked at, and they are lactate, amino acids, and glycerol. The first (1) precursor stated above is lactate, it has a formation that is by the active skeletal muscle, this occurs at a when the rate of glycolysis has reach its maximum of the oxidative metabolism (Berg JM, 2002). The amino acids with a carbon skeleton (Brandt, 2003) are derived from the amount of proteins that are in the diet, as well as starvation, from the breaking down of the proteins that are housed within the skeletal muscle (Berg JM, 2002). Lastly, the glycerol will obtain fat cells by the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols which wi ll yield glycerol as well as the lipids (Berg JM, 2002). As stated above, before looking at fructose-1,6-bisphosphate the beginning steps in gluconeogenesis needs to be looked at. Biosynthesis. We began synthesis by looking at the glycolysis pathway, there are a lot of enzymes that are used to synthesize glucose from a pyruvate stage. There are three reactions in glycolysis which we termed irreversible (specifically those catalyzed by pyruvate kinase, phosphofructokinase, and hexokinase) are not used in gluconeogenesis synthesis (Selinsky, 2002). These three (3) reactions of Glycolysis have such a large negative delta G in the forward direction that they are essentially irreversible, which is why bypass is used by enzymes in order for them to be synthesize. The delta G will make a determination of the proper direction of the carbon flow through the pathway (Brandt, 2003). Gluconeogenesis needs to be more exergonic, so in order to make that happened six ATPs are consumed (Miles, 2003).The first step or bypass, is by converting 3 carbon pyruvate into 4 carbon intermediate oxaloacetate , biotin-requiring reaction catalyzed (King, 2014), this is called pyruvate carboxylate (Sel insky, 2002). This mitochondrial enzyme will convert the pyruvate into oxaloacetate. Pyruvate carboxylase is a mitochondrial. The biotin is interconnected heavily as it is bound to the amino group covalently on the lysine side chain of the pyruvate carboxylase (Brandt, 2003).   Pyruvate carboxylase catalyzes formation between the biotin (Biotin has a 5-carbon side chain whose terminal carboxyl is in an amide linkage to the e-amino group of a lysine of the enzyme (Diwan, 2007)), and carbon dioxide carbonate by having a covalent bond. When there is a reaction that is ATP- dependent, the carbonate will then be put into action and transferred to the pyruvate substrate, in order to make a molecule oxaloacetate (Brandt, 2003). the high and low amount of concentration of acetyl CoA and ATP will ultimately decide is the oxaloacetic acid will survive or diminish (Ophardt, 2003). If there is a lower amount of acetyl- CoA and higher concentrations of ATP than the pathway will continue (Ophardt, 2003). A Transport of oxaloacetate out of mitochondria Oxaloacetate Malate NADH + H + NAD + Malate Oxaloacetate NADH + H + NAD + Inner mito are seen in this first bypass step. The Using a specific enzyme the Oxaloacetate will now be able to be converted into phosphoenolpyruvate , by the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (Selenski, 2005). This Mg ²+ enzyme will require is GTP being the donor for when there is the possibility for a phosphoryl transfer reaction, thus losing the loss of a CO ² molecule. Therefore, within this first step bypass synthesis, the reaction has gone from, phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate, and overall one (1) ATP is gained. In returning to phosphoenolpyruvate from pyruvate, the equivalent of 2 ATP must be consumed (Selinsky, 2002). Note that the CO ² that was gained in the pyruvate in the beginning of the pyruvate carboxylase step, has now been loss in the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. The second (2) bypass Now, to go from phosphoenolpyruvate to fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate into 6-bisphosphate, with this reaction the same reaction can be used, entirely by the concentrations of substrates and products (Selinsky, 2002). Because the reaction being exponentially endergonic, thus irreversible, the transition from the fructose 6-phosphate uses a catalyst from a different Mg ² + enzyme called the dependent fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase, (Lehninger, ) This will promote an irreversible hydrolysis at the C-1 phosphate (Lehninger,). This is the third (3) bypass of gluconeogenesis which is the final step and in most tissues gluconeogenesis would end at the fructose 6-phosphate which was generated by fructose 1, 6 bisphosphatase being converted into glucose 6-phosphate. So, basically instead of having free glucose being generated, glucose 6-phosphate would be converted in glycogen ( Tymoczko, 2013). In this final step of gluconeogenesis, free glucose is will take shelter in the liver. Glucose 6-phosphate is then transported into the lumen if the endoplasmic recticulum, thus it is then hydrolyzed to glucose by the glucose 6-phosphatase (Tymoczko, 2013). Note that each of the step reactions that have been achieved, to the formation of glucose from pyruvate is considered energetically unfavorable, unless there are coupling reactions which are favorable (Tymoczko, 2013). In the end of this biosynthesis there are six (6) nucleoside triphosphate molecules that have been hydrolyzed in order to achieved a synthesize of glucose from pyruvate (Tymoczko, 2013). Regulation Gluconeogenesis is highly regulated by a series of regulations. The steps are broken down and now they have to be a regulation in gluconeogenesis. It is obvious that it’s going to have a direct correlation contrast to glycolysis. Consider the first stage in which energy is needed (Tymoczko, 2014). The main site of regulations is seen when the there is a regulation in the activity of PFK-1 and F1,6BPase and this would be the most important site for the controlling of the flux which is toward glucose oxidation or even when there is glucose synthesis. As described in control of glycolysis, this is predominantly controlled by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, F2,6BP which is a powerful negative allosteric effector of F1,6Bpase activity (King, 2004). â€Å"Acetyl CoA is an allosteric effector of both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Acetyl-CoA inhibits pyruvate kinase and reciprocally activates pyruvate carboxylase (Miles,2003). Second, insulin and glucagon are very important when regulating pathway (Wallace,2002). There will be a decline in the response to the glucagon stimulation, when the level of Fructose 2,6 bisphosphate decline in the hepatocytes (King, 2014). Once these signals are stimulated the signals will be excited through an activation of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (King, 2014). Both the PFK2 and fructose bisphosphatase are present in the 55-kd polypeptide chain (Tymoczko, 2013). here is a substrate enzyme which is bifunctional (King, 2014) which contains a N-terminal regulatory domain (Tymoczko, 2013) being responsible for the synthesis of the hydrolysis of fructose 2, 6- bisphosphate and that is the protein kinase a phosphatase domain. Therefore once the PFK-2 is phosphorylated by PKA it will start to dephosphorlate, by acting as a phosphatase (King, 2014). â€Å"AMP will ultimately enhances the inhibition of Fructose-2,6-BP. Note that these allosteric effectors of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase all are allosteric effectors of phosphofructokinase (Miles, 2003). These effectors reciprocally regulate both enzymes. Furthermore, fructose 1, 6-bisphosphase once it’s active, its activity will be highly regulated by the ATP to ADP concentration (Tymoczko, 2014). When this is high then gluconeogenesis can proceed to its highest potential. PROKARYOTES VERSUS EUKARYOTES Gluconeogenesis conversion happens in both the eukaryotic and prokaryotes, however it is very important to know its difference. In eukaryotes the lactate that is formed anaerobically within the muscles will be converted to glucose in liver and kidney, thus being stored as glycogen or even being released as blood glucose (Davis, 2014). In prokaryotes the production of the G3P product of photosynthesis will be converted in a starch form and then further stored in the chloroplasts or even being converted into glucose and sucrose, where it is then exported to the other tissues for starch storage (Davis, 2014). As stated above when it comes to the biosynthesis of all eukaryotes, it is an requirement for survival, because so much of the homeostasis of the body (e.g., the brain and the nervous system),glucose from the blood as the primary fuel source ( Nelson, 2012). Just alone the human brain will require as much as 120 g of glucose with a one day period (Nelson, 2012). When considering eukaryotes gluconeogenesis will primarly occur in the liver and also in the kidney but not much. In prokaryotes the seedlings, will find that it stores the fate and proteins, which are then converted into disaccharide sucrose foe the ability of transport throughout the plant that is developing (Nelson, 2012). â€Å"The glucose and its derivatives are precursors in the synthesis of plant cell walls, nucleotides and coenzymes, and a variety of other essential metabolites† (Nelson, 2012). There are many small organisms that are capable to grow on what are plain organic compounds like acetate, lactate, and propionate. They then will convert to glucose by gluconeogenesis (Nelson, 2012). Defects Pathway Although the pathway may be highly regulated, there are still possibilities for defects to occur. As stated in the beginning of this paper fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase is very crucial; as it aids in biochemical reactions and many of the physiological functions of the body. In the mechanism of fructose 1, 6- bisphosphatase, there is the Glu98 which will activate a molecule consisting of water. That water molecule will than attack the phosphorus atom on the 1-phosphate of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (Kelly, 2006).â€Å"The hydrolysis of a phosphate ester can proceed through an intermediate of metaphosphate (dissociative mechanism) or through a trigonal bipryamidal transition state (associative mechanism)† (Kelly, 2006). Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase which catalyzes the hydrolysis of D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) to D-fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), it is the very key to the eyzamatic process of gluconeogenesis (Sato, 2004). phosphofructokinase is also an important catalyze reaction, because it will catalyze the reverse reaction, â€Å"the phosphorylation of F6P during glycolysis, the unidirectional FBPase regulates the flux of sugar metabolism† (Sato,2004). Furthermore, the enzymatic block can lead to the high amount of accumulation of gluconeogenic precursors (e.g. certain amino acids, lactic acid, and ketoacids) (Kelley, 2006). Therefore, when there is a fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase deficiency is an inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder and a person would have what is called a severe lactic acidosis and also with a diagnose of hypoglycemia. Disease Population in the United States In the United States alone about 10 percent of this nations population is diagnosed with hypoglycemia, from the defect in the enzyme fructose 1, 6, bisphosphatase. This disease affects those who are typically obese and or have type 2 diabetes. In order to try and control the diseas population treatments are use, like Metformin. Metformin is an anti-hyperglycemic reagent that has been used in the patients for over the past several years, in obese patients or overweight patients whose blood glucose levels cannot be controlled non-pharmacologically (Salpeter, 2010). â€Å"Fructose 1,6-BPase is a target for the development of drugs in the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes, which afflicts over 15 million people in the United States† (Kelley, 2006). Today it is still unknown on how fructose-1, 6 bisphosphatase is genetically inherited, there are still ongoing studies. Some of the ongoing studies that were seen is if Reye syndrome and sudden infant death, have a direct correlation to a defect in this enzyme, however the research still continues. As stated above, the primary target for hypoglycemia is still heavily looked upon in the obese community, and overweight community, because they are more susceptible to getting diabetes. As see fructose 1, 6 bisphosphatase is the key precursor for the gluconeogenesis pathway to occur. It is very important that the sugar intake is watch closely, when children are at a young age. According to a recent study, it is shown that fructose intolerant is seen in late infancy stage and only after they have a dietary ingestion of foods that are containing fructose or sucrose. Foods such as such as fruits, juices are the primary transportantion. The organs commonly affected by fructose bisphosphatase deficiency are liver, kidney cortex and intestinal mucos (Frazier, 2013). Overall Pathway of Gluconeogenesis Now, putting the metabolic pathway all together, Conclusion Fructose 1, 6 bisphosphatase is a very crucial enzyme to the continuance of gluconeogenesis regulation. With the literature that has been conducted, it lays out step by step why this metabolic biosynthesis pathway is vital to eukaryotic and prokaryotic. There are ways to combat this disease, and that is by maintaining a healthy diet. This entail will work to defeat the affects that this has on the population. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brandt, M. Amino Acid Breakdown. 2003. Retrieved from https://www.rose-hulman.edu/~brandt/Chem330/Amino_acid_breakdown.pdf. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochemistry. 5th edition. New York: W H Freeman; 2002. Chapter 16, Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis. Diwan, J. Gluconeogenesis: Regulation of Glycolysis Gluconeogenesis. Retrieved from http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/gluconeo.htm#intro. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Frazier D. Glycogen Storage Disease Laboratory. 2013. Retrieved from http://pediatrics.duke.edu/divisions/medical-genetics/biochemical-genetics-laboratory/glycogen-storage-disease-laboratory/tes-8. (accessed on December 5, 2014) 2014). King, M. Gluconeogenesis: Endogenous Glucose Synthesis. 2014. Retrieved from http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/gluconeogenesis.php#. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Kelley, M. Fructose 1-6 Bisphosphatase. Retrieved from http://faculty.uca.edu/mkelley/4121 Web pages/Student_Webpages_2006/Aanu ogunbanjo web things/The webbie.html. (Accessed December 5, 2014). UC Davis. 2013. Gluconeogenesis. Retrieved from http://www-plb.ucdavis.edu/courses/bis/105/lectures/Gluconeogenesis.pdf. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Lehniger, Nelson, and Cox. Principles of Biochemistry. 2002. Retrieved from http://www.irb.hr/users/precali/Znanost.o.Moru/Biokemija/Literatura/Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, Fourth Edition David L. Nelson, Michael M. Cox.pdf. (accessed on December 5, 2014). Miles, B. Gluconeogenesis. 2003. Retrieved from https://www.tamu.edu/faculty/bmiles/lectures/gluconeogenesis.pdf. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Ophart, C. Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis, and Gluconeogenesis. 2003. Retrieved from http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/604glycogenesis.html. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Selinsky, B. Biosynthesis: Gluconeogenesis. 2005. Retrieved from http://www22.homepage.villanova.edu/barry.selinsky/CHM%204622/Carbohydrate%20II%20M16%2005.pdf. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Salpeter SR. Risk of fatal and nonfatal lactic acidosis with metformin use in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Retrieved from http://www.bibliotecacochrane.com/pdf/CD002967.pdf. (Accessed December 5, 2014). Wallace C., Barritt G. Gluconeogenesis. 2002. Encyclopedia of life sciences: p:1-8. (Accessed December 5, 2014).

Effect Of Exercise On The Human Body Physical Education Essay

Effect Of Exercise On The Human Body Physical Education Essay The increase in the prevalence of obesity has seemed to lead to an increase in the trend of healthy eating and exercise over the years (Flegal, Carroll, Ogden Johnson, 2002). Interestingly, exercise is actually considered a form of stress, as it is a disruption of homoeostasis (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.22). Exercise is defined as a single acute bout of bodily exertion or muscular activity that requires an expenditure of energy above resting level and that in most, but not all, cases results in voluntary movement (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.705). When we run our heart rate rises, our muscles move faster, our respiratory rate increase, and so on. When we lift weights our muscles are pushed to work harder either via repetition and sets or the amount we lift. During these time periods, our body is struggling to maintain homoeostasis; a healthy form of stress that can make the human body more efficient and productive. Exercise will affect each system differently and different exercise will affect the different systems differently. It is said that health-related physical fitness is composed of components representing cardiovascular-respiratory endurance, metabolism and muscular fitness (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.22). In other words, the main systems that are affected by exercise are our cardiovascular, respiratory, and muscular systems. Exercise also affects our metabolism, which is not a system on its own; however is a key component to provided energy for our body. When we exercise, we need energy. Therefore energy production, or metabolism, is affected by exercise. Metabolism is defined as the the total of all energy transformations that occur in the body (Plowman Smith, 2011, p. 27). To make adenosine tripohophate (ATP), the bodys form of energy, from the food we consume we use a process called cellular respiration. Our resources included carbohydrates, triglycerides and amino acids. Through carbohydrate metabolism, we are able to break down carbohydrates into glucose or glycogen. From there our glucose or glycogen will go through the process of glycolysis to make pyruvate or lactic acid. The acids then become acetyl coenzyme A, which would then go through the Kreb cycle and the electron transport system to create ATP. From our carbohydrate we get a range of thirty to thirty-three ATPs; depending on the muscle group and if glucose on glycogen was used. With triglycerides, we must break it down into fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids t hen go through the process of beta oxidation to create acetyl coenzyme A. The number of ATP formed depends on the number of carbon pairs found in the triglyceride. Amino acids make about ten to fifteen percent of our energy supply; and therefore are used as a last resort (Plowman Smith, 2011). During exercise, the goal of metabolism is to do three things. First, increase mobilisation and usage of the free fatty acids in adipose tissue and intramuscular stores. Second, decrease the amount of glucose sent to muscles that are not being used while still sending some to our nervous system; particularly our brain. Third, increase the breakdown of glucose stores in the liver and muscles. This creates glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (Plowman Smith, 2011). We used a different source of energy depending on the type of exercise. If the duration of the exercise were to decrease and or if there is an increase in intensity then carbohydrates would become our main source. However, if we increased our duration and decreased our intensity the many sources would be triglycerides. When the duration is longer than an hour that is when amino acids make a small contribution to the energy production. The effects of exercise on our metabolism, in turn, affect the efficiency of other systems in the body, such as the respiratory system. While exercising, one of the first things we mentally note is a change in is our Respiratory System. This is quite simply because of the high demand for energy, exercise creates. Our respiratory system is used to provided energy via aerobic metabolism, in other words, it brings in the oxygen we need to create ATP. Therefore, it makes sense that we breathe more frequently to help our body get the energy it needs. To speed up the process, it would be best if the rate at which oxygen disassociated from haemoglobin increased. This is exactly what happens. Here is how: as we create more energy the waste product, carbon dioxide, also increases. Therefore our partial pressure of carbon dioxide increase; and because of the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system, there is also a decrease in the pH levels (Martini, Ober Nath, 2012). There is also an increase in body temperatures, which is a byproduct of energy production. These conditions increase the rate of dissociation of oxygen from the protein haemoglobin. What is interesting is our misconception with the idea of our respiratory system as a limiting factor. The phrase, I am out of breath, is commonly heard by runners and gym goers. However, our level of respiratory activity is almost equal to the rate of work being done. If we take our increased activity into hand and our respiratory systems large reserve, we find that the respiratory system does not limit our ability to exercise in any way (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.385). We do not see many adaptions in the respiratory system as a result of training. As a stressor, exercise does not stress the limitations of the respiratory system; and as a result, we do not see any long or short term changes. There are some changes in the respiratory system as a result of water based exercises. We find that they have a higher lung volume and capacities. The reason for this is unknown. However, there is a theory that swimmerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦breath against the resistance of water, using a restricted breathing pattern with repeated expansion of the lungs to total capacity (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.305). Swimmers also do work in the horizontal position; a position optimal for perfusion of the lung and diffusion of respiratory gases (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.307). In swimmers, we also find that there is a report of higher diffusion capacity. This is also seen in runners. However, this is more likely due to circulatory changes. A slight increase in our minute ventilation is also seen as a result of training adaptation. Minute ventilation or minute volume is defined as the amount of air coming into and leaving the respiratory system per minute (Martini, Ober Nath, 2012). It is the components of minute volume that we see the change in, which affects the minute volume. Minute volume equals to how many breaths we take per minute times our tidal volume. Our tidal volume is the amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single respiratory cycle under resting conditions; in other words, it is quite breathing (Martini, Ober Nath, 2012, p. 739). With exercise, our tidal volume adapts and increases at rest. Therefore, individual who frequently exercise  will develop a large tidal volume. As a result, the minute volume is higher after training than before, allowing for the ability to increase our endurance (Plowman Smith, 2011). Besides these changes, we do not see a lot of long-term adaptations in the respiratory system as a result of exercise. The changes mentioned are also very minimal. An area we see a lot changes in response to exercise is our cardiovascular system and muscular system. The ability to deliver oxygen (and other substances) depends on the proper functioning of the cardiovascular system (Plowman Smith, 2011, p.323). As we exercise the need for oxygen increases and carbon dioxide concentration in our blood increase. Chemoreceptor and baroreceptors detect this change in the blood. To get the proper resources to the proper place certain factors of our cardiovascular system start to increase during exercise. These factors include our stroke volume, heart rate, cardiac output, and systolic blood pressure. Stroke volume is the amount of blood that is ejected from the heart after every beat; the amount per minute is the cardiac output. Systolic blood pressure is the blood pressure during a contra ction (Plowman Smith, 2011). The kind of exercise will affect how much these factors will increase or how rapidly it will increase. For example, during the short term, light to moderate aerobic exercise make our factors increase rapidly. However, during incremental exercise, our factors will increase in a rectilinear fashion as the workload increases. Our vascular system also plays an important role as we exercise. When exercising we find that there is a decrease in resistance of the arteries and veins, in other words, we see an increase in vasodilatation. This allows for more blood to go to working muscle, while making sure the blood pressure does not rise excessively (Plowman Smith, 2011). Our cardiovascular system will also contribute to maintaining homoeostasis of our body temperatures. When it comes to thermoregulation the environment surrounding our bodies can be very influential. However, our body is able to maintain an internal temperature via metabolic heat production, body heat radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation. Our cardiovascular system plays a role by capturing the heat exerted by our muscular system and sending them to be released via our peripheral vascular system. One of our primary defences against heat stress, especially while exercising, is sweating. However, there are situations where the thermoregulatory and metabolic demands are not meet by the cardiovascular systems. In this case, an individual can develop heat illness such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke. That is why it is important for those who exercise to keep hydrated before, during and after exercise (Plowman Smith, 2011). Over time we will find that exercise will cause our cardiovascular system to adapt. With endurance training, we will see an increase in blood volume and plasma volume. However, the increase in plasma volume will be seen at the beginning of the training while blood volume increase will not happen until much later. As a result of endurance training, individuals develop a lower heart rate at rest as well as the maximal oxygen consumption (Plowman Smith, 2011). Approximately forty percent of the deaths in America are caused by cardiovascular disease. One of the top cardiovascular diseases is coronary heart disease. However, there are studies that show exercise can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Exercise can even reduce the risk of factors that cause cardiovascular diseases; such as properties of metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is characterised by high visceral abdominal obesity, dyslipidemia, reduced glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and hypertension. Together, these are factors that can cause cardiovascular diseases. By exercising, we can reduce the risk of many diseases, not just one (Plowman Smith, 2011). The second system that is largely affected by exercise is our skeletal muscular system. Generally, our skeletal muscles are important for posture, heat generation, and motion. To help perform these actions our nervous system plays the control our skeletal muscles. A motor unit is the combinations of the motor neurone and the muscle fibres it stimulates. ATP plays an important role here. This is because one neurone gives the signal for the muscle fibres to contract; the muscle fibres will need the energy to contract and then relax (Plowman Smith, 2011). Human muscle fibres are categorised by contractile properties and metabolic properties. From the contractile perspective, we have fast-twitch fibres and slow-twitch fibres. The ability for the fibre to contract slowly or quickly has more to do with the motor neurone then the fibre. Alpha-1 motor neurones are larger, have high recruitment threshold, and faster conductivity velocity; innervate fast twitch fibres. Alpha 2 motor neurones are smaller, have slower conduction velocity and low recruitment threshold; innervate slow twitch fibres. Metabolically, fast twitch fibres can make energy via oxidation and glycolytic metabolism or just glycolytic metabolism. However, slow twitch fibres can only make energy via oxidative metabolism (Plowman Smith, 2011). Through studies, we have found that athletes that practice endurance activities will have a higher percentage of slow twitch fibres. Individuals who are involved in resistance activities will have a higher percentage of fast twitch fibres. However, it is believed that this is more genetically based, then based on nurture. That is to say, that it is easier for some who has a high amount of fast twitch fibres will be better at resistance activities. While those with high slow twitch fibres are better at endurance activities. Therefore, the contractile properties of muscle fibres cannot be changed via exercise; however, our metabolic properties can be. It is possible for training to cause enough fast twitch fibres to change metabolically, so that they switch from oxidative-glycolytic metabolism to glycolytic metabolism (Plowman Smith, 2011). While training and exercising, we must be aware of muscular fatigue and muscular soreness. Muscular fatigue results from a loss of muscle functions and is largely depend upon the type of muscle fibre being used. Different exercises will use different muscle fibres; therefore, different kinds of exercise will cause muscle fatigue differently. For example, in static activity hydrogen ions increase, glycolysis is inhibited, fewer calcium ions are released in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and there is an occlusion of blood flow. Any of these, if enough or a combination of all of them, can cause muscle fatigue. Muscle soreness is the same idea as overexertion (Plowman Smith, 2011, p. 547). There are two types: immediate-onset soreness and delayed-onset muscle soreness. Immediate-onset soreness is pain that occurs during and immediately after exercise. When over exercising hydrogen ion concentration and lactic acid levels increase, this increase causes an over stimulation of pain receptors. It is believed that this is what cause immediate-onset soreness. However, it is not sure what causes delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). DOMS is the pain that is felt at least eight hours after exercising and, reaches peaks and falls over the next ninety-six hours. Athletes and trainers must beware to avoid these conditions because it can affect athletic participation and performance (Plowman Smith, 2011). Different exercises lead to muscle fatigue differently than another type of exercise. This is the same as the adaptations seen in our muscular system. Different kinds of exercises will lead to different adaptations. Resistance training is used to improve overall health, improve athletic performance; rehabilitate injuries, and change physical appearance (Plowman Smith, 2011, p. 580). Muscular adaptions, however, also rely heavily on their individual goals; and occur at different rates. Trainers must remember to apply a training program based on the individual or team and their capabilities (Plowman Smith, 2011). Metabolism, cardiovascular system, and the muscular system are the main aspects of our body that are affected by exercise. However, our other systems are also affected. Our skeletal system is important for protection, support, mineral storage, hematopoiesis and movement. Studies have shown that exercise has a positive effect on bone health and helps avoid disease such as osteoporosis. Physical activity creates an increase in mechanical force that leads to mechanotransduction. Mechanotransduction is the process of osteocytes modelling and remodelling the bones. This makes the bone stronger. Bending our bones also causes stress (compressive and tensile stress) that changes the hydrostatic pressure of our bones. The change in pressure increases the movement of the fluid within the bone. Fluid in the bone carries the nutrients and wastes; as well as results in the formation of new bone. Exercise helps the body to reach peak bone mass while still growing, offset menopause and slow down bo ne loss that occurs later in life. However, if exercise is done excessively their activity can exceed the adaptive ability of bone, resulting is overuse injury (Plowman Smith, 2011, p. 501). The nervous system was seen coming into play with our muscular system; however, our nervous system also works with our endocrine system when responding to exercise. When responding to stress in general, our nervous system and the endocrine systems will come into play. Since exercise is a stress, we see a response from the nervous system and the endocrine system. Specifically, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic come into play during different points of the exercise. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), our fight or flight response, will come into play during exercise. While our parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), rest and digest, will be important for recovery; breaking down energy for our muscle recovery, taking deep slow breaths, and so on. The SNS will, during exercise, ensure to enhance our cardiovascular functions, regulate blood flow and maintain blood pressure and thermal balance, and increase fuel mobilisation (Plowman Smith, 2011. It has also been found that after lo ng bouts of exercise a group of neuropeptides called endogenous opioids is released in the central nervous system. Endogenous opioids, or opioids, are a famously know as opium from the best and for subsiding pain (Jonsdottir, 2002). While running as pain levels reach certain levels opioids are released, and are also known to cause runners second the wind or runners high (Widmaier, Raff Strang, 2008, p. 171). The endocrine system also plays a role when exercising. While exercising there is an increase in the release of our metabolic hormones; glucagon, insulin, growth hormone, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones work together to maintain blood glucose levels and mobilise fuel for ATP production. Epinephrine and norepinephrine also help to enhance cardiac function and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance. Adaptive, our endocrine system may change due to exercise. However, it depends on the individual. The adaptation could make the individual more sensitive to lower levels of hormone so that the same effect occurs following training even without a changing baseline (Plowman Smith, 2011, p. 645). Our immune system will also respond to exercise. It has been found that will moderate exercise will lead to higher numbers and activity of neutrophils, natural killer cells, B and T cells, macrophages, and more. Thus making out immune system stronger. However, during excessive exercise, we see a decrease in natural killer cells, lymphocytes and neutrophils. It is believed that this is likely for the vulnerability to acute infections. No pain, no gain, is what is often said among friends when exercising. It is important to remember that exercise is a stressor, and that one will feel pain as a result. It is also important to beware of the effects of over-exercising. Exercise, if done right, can help avoid, delay and lessen the effects of disease; as well enhance our bodies to function to its prime.

It’s Time We Learn to Listen to Our Bodies Essay -- Health Nutrition D

It’s Time We Learn to Listen to Our Bodies Christine is my best friend. She is the kind of person anyone would love to know. She has the most wonderful personality. She is always there for me and knows just the right things to say. She is giving and caring to anyone she comes in contact with. She is helpful, understanding, and overweight. Like most women who struggle with their weight, she has tried every diet available and none have worked successfully. I see her fight this constant battle and feel her disappointment when she fails. Food is a consuming factor in her life and that is where her problem lies. To lose her weight and keep it off, she must learn to listen to her body's cues and eat when, what, and how much it asks for. Most weight problems start in early childhood. Babies are not capable of overeating. They want to eat when their bodies are hungry and they eat until their hunger is gone. Parents don't realize that they start creating bad habits in their children when they limit their baby's food intake or constantly shove bottles at them whenever they cry. As a c...

Night :: essays research papers

Throughout history During World War II, millions of European Jews suffered and died at the hands of Adolf Hitler and his anti-Semitic Nazi regime. In the historical fiction Night, the author Elie Wiesel, portrays to the readers the emotional truth behind the Holocaust, based on his experience. He insists: â€Å"The only role I sought that of witness. I believed that, having survived by chance, I was duty bound to give meaning to my survival, to justify each moment of my life.† He opens our eyes and touches our hearts as he takes us to Eliezer’s psychological journey, as the Holocaust robs him of his faith in God and exposes him to the deepest inhumanity of which man is capable. Thus, the author wants us to understand the importance of learning from the tragedy that was the Holocaust: â€Å"The Holocaust, shows that how people think and act needs revision in the face of those facts, unless one wishes to continue the same blindness that produced the darkness of Night. Yet failure to use the Holocaust to call all of humankind into question diminishes the chances to mend the world.† Eliezer started out as religious and studious young man who possessed a strong sense of tradition and faith, as well as being deeply interested in Jewish mysticism. When asked why he prays to God, he answered, â€Å"Why did I pray? A strange question. Why did I live? Why did I breathe?† His belief in God was unconditional. However, his confidence in God diminishes as he is faced with the truth of what lies ahead for them: "Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed. Never shall I forget the little faces of the children, whose bodies I saw turned into wreaths of smoke beneath a silent blue sky. Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith forever†¦ Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust.† This notion is also well illustrated by the author when he describe the hanging of three Auschwitz prisoners – one of them a child.

Atticus As A Model Parent :: essays research papers

In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee suggests that Atticus is a model parent. Atticus gives guidance to Jem and Scout, and he treats them with fairness and honesty. He tries to bring them up as best he can as a single parent. Atticus is always guiding Jem and Scout with advice so that they will become more compassionate people. Atticus sets a good example for the children when Mr Ewell confronts him. Even though he is provoked and insulted, Atticus simply has a â€Å"peaceful reaction†. This shows the children never to get into fights with people when they are upset about something. Atticus shows children about courage and all the forms it appears in. When Jem is told to read for Ms Dubose and she dies, Atticus explains to Jem about her morphine addiction, and how she died â€Å"free†. This shows Jem that courage isn’t always where you expect to find it, and that if you have some compassion, you see people for who they really are. The most important piece of advice he gives his children is that â€Å"you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view†¦ until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.† This is important for the childre n to know, because it helps them to be more caring people, and they use this advice throughout the novel. Atticus treats everyone with fairness. He always hears both sides of the story. He does this after Scout has gotten into a fight with Francis Hancock. After a time Atticus hears Scout’s side of the story and realises that it wasn’t totally Scout’s fault. Scout also tells Uncle Jack that when she and Jem get into fights Atticus stops to hear both sides of the argument before placing the blame, if any. When he is confronted by awkward issues Atticus never tries to hide or cover up the truth. He tells Uncle Jack at Finches landing that when a child asks you something, â€Å"answer him, for goodness sake.† After Atticus is confronted by the mob outside the county jail, he doesn’t try to pretend that they weren’t there to hurt him. He admits that Mr Cunningham might have â€Å"hurt me a little.† When Scout asks Atticus if they are poor, the usual response would be to say no, so as not to scare Scout.

Satire of Modest Proposal

Satire at its Finest A masterful satire, this is what Jonathon Swift’s â€Å"A Modest Proposal† is. The writing is used to construct a misunderstood proposal that comments on the social hardship of Ireland while blaming the government’s incompetence as well as the morals of the country. His proposal makes it visible to others that there is a need for social reform. From the beginning, it is not clear to the readers of what Swift’s true proposal actually is, but as it is being broken apart, one can see that the entire writing is full of sarcasm.The proposal itself speaks to the people who ignore the issues but who are also the ones that can fix them. As a proposed solution, that author states in the intro that â€Å"for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland from being a burden to their parents or country, for making them beneficial to the public† (Swift 239). Swift is bringing upon an attempt to find a cheap and easy method for bringing c hildren of the poor into the commonwealth as well as turning the problem that is amuck, into its own solution.He uses analogies for the way people, a nation, can be devoured and how the nation is consuming itself and its own resources. â€Å"I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords who, as they have already devoured most of their parents, seem to have the best title to the children†(Swift 240). Swift has effective and ineffective ways of using different literary techniques that will intrigue one or leave them completely baffled with his proposal. At first glance of this writing, a reader can be nothing but appalled, though it causes one to think about realistic solutions and to take action.Swift’s proposal is effective by which he delivers his argument so efficiently and with such detail and use of sarcastic comparisons, exaggerations, and emotional appeals. His main solution to this problem is the practice of selling and eating children. â€Å"A young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome for, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or ragout†(Swift 240). He uses statistical support and specific data about pricing, rates, and population numbers, to make his argument more agreeable and supportive.To make his proposal so effective, the author uses good structure, tone, language, and rhetorical appeals. The use of suggestive language makes it hard for the reader to not agree with his arguments. Though the language is clear, it is at a cross with the tone. The tone though full of sarcasm and irony, changes throughout and also reduces human beings and compares them to livestock. An example of this is when Swift writes that â€Å"women as breeders,† and â€Å"children just drooped from its darn† (Swift 241).At first, the author was sympathetic toward the people, but then it becom es more sarcastic again. The use of ethos, logos, and pathos play a large role in making this writing so effective. The constant flow of disgust and humor, have an effect on the reader emotionally, creating pathos. The ethos and logos give the writing underlying meaning, while the logos create an unsympathetic feeling allowing the proposal to come off as one that is opposed. With the author creating different methods of cooking children, the ethos is weakened. A wholesome food whether stewed, roasted, baked or boiled† (Swift 240). With supporting evidence from friends, Swift provides details on better consumption ages, flavors, and experience. This proposal also has some techniques that make it ineffective in its writing. The author is portraying himself to be from a self-righteous moral stance. His stance on the sides is not easy to identify. The irony used is to criticize the society that enables all these problems and the poverty of others while at the same time it is degra ding the poor.His writing shows a lack of compassion for the human life, and by being one-sided and not considering opposing viewpoints, it loses some effectiveness. By discriminating, one would suggest it has an effect on it as well. The story does contain fallacies. One of these fallacies is appeal to authority. Jonathon Swift suggests a friend, who it seems is one of a higher status, who describes the different ages, value and ways that he and others have committed cannibalism. This fallacy is an argument that attempts to overawe an opponent into accepting a conclusion, appealing to ones feelings of modesty.Overall, â€Å"A Modest Proposal† by Jonathon Swift is a very well created satire. Not only does this piece of literature draw one into the progressions of tones and use of strong and witty language, but there are statistics and data to make this argument favorable. In the end of Swift’s writing, he tells us that he has nothing to gain economically, being that he has no children. With this act, one can see that the author is being more sincere than previously believed. The author uses effective and ineffective ways of using different literary tools and tricks that draw many people into is proposal and to see the ultimate reason for it. The rhetorical appeals, structure, tone, discrimination and many details make this writing so intriguing. This absurd request is a way in which to better attempt an economical change in Ireland and to reveal what others wish to not see in the country. His method to get there is one of great success. Work Cited: Swift, Jonathon. â€Å"A Modest Proposal. † Reading Literature and Writing Argument. Eds. Missy James and Alan P. Merickel. 4th ed. Boston: Longman/Pearson, 2011. 238-44. Print.

A Study of Globalisation Essay

Executive Summary This paper attempts to make sense of globalisation from a social and business perspective. Initially I will talk briefly about globalisation within our community and the different stand points those communities and individuals have taken; for and against globalisation. I will then talk about the multinational companies that have made the phenomenon of globalisation possible and these companies various impacts on societies and local communities around the world. The topic is further analysed by using multinational food retailing companies in Latin America as a case study. Displayed to the reader through this case will be a clear indication of how local communities and in particular their farmers are affected by globalisation and multinational companies. There are many different views on globalisation; and those against it oppose many different aspects of it. One of the countless reasons why there are anti-globalisation activists is due to the following: Multinational food retailing companies, the backbone of what is known as ‘globalisation’ within the supermarket industry, have in many cases entered small farming communities around the globe and destroyed a way of life for many of the farmers and labourers around them. Within Latin America these farmers have been forced to flee their homes to find refuge within the slums of the urban sprawls within their cities or even to cross borders into the USA. Introduction to Globalisation Definition: Globalisation can be defined as ‘ the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa’ (Giddens 1990). It has also been described as ‘ process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions – assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact – generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity’. (Held, et al 1999) In relation to Latin America (the major area of discussion of this paper) globalisation can be defined as a practice or system that has affected several of the continents most persistent problems. Such problems would be the diverse extent of economic exploitation and social disparity that has branded Latin America ever since it’s European colonisation in the sixteenth century. (Harris & Halebsky 1995) Pro-globalisation: Free trade fosters prosperity and has an extremely important characteristic that affects our way of life. This characteristic is actually it’s tendency to be able to prevent war. Extensive research has shown that trade promotes peace both directly, by reducing the danger of military divergence, and indirectly, by promoting prosperity and democracy (Weede 2004). Globalisation and free trade in the 20th century and beyond can be compared with the 19th Century expansion of empires (like the British Empire). These empires built an infrastructure in developing countries; railways, ports and beautifully constructed colonial buildings were just some of the benefits these developing countries could take advantage of. Even though these commodities weren’t built for the benefit of the developing country (they were built for British trade) they still ultimately increased these countries abilities to trade and to become technologically independent. In the 20th Century infrastructure, technology, health and education systems implemented by the world powers, in developing and developed countries, has improved the overall quality of life for people worldwide, this does not include Africa. The average GDP for all countries except Africa has gone up; however the downside is; the difference between the rich and poor countries has also increased. The reason for this is that the countries introducing themselves to the developing countries are actually gaining a much more significant benefit. Anti-globalisation: This term is more commonly attributed to the political standpoint of certain people, groups and organisations that are in opposition to certain facets of globalisation. Those in resistance often oppose large multi-national company’s dominance of global trade agreements and trade-governing bodies like WTO (the World Trade Organisation) (Graeber 2002). Otherwise known as a social movement, anti-globalisation represents its participants in their opposition to large corporations who endeavour to attain and ‘have’ attained political power. Political power can be put into effect via international trade agreements, anti globalisation activists scrutinize these agreements, stating that they quite often undermine ‘the environment, labour rights, national sovereignty, the third world, and other various aspects of our everyday lives as human beings’ (Graeber 2002). It is common knowledge that globalisation and free trade can affect developing countries negatively, however, the worlds most developed countries and the people who live within them are also affected negatively. Globalisation forces job opportunities from these developed countries to other countries around the world and low skilled workers in developed countries lose their jobs. This increases the difference between the rich populace and poorer populace in that country. The following quote, from the United Nations, backs this statement up and shows us why there are anti-globalisation activists. ‘The richest fifth of the world have 80% of the world’s income and the poorest fifth have 1%; this gap has doubled between 1960 and 2000’ (United Nations 1999) largely due to the impacts of globalisation. As displayed above, multi-national corporations play a substantial role within the theory and practice of globalisation, these corporations are powerful by nature and currently account for over 33 per cent of world output, and 66 per cent of world trade (Gray 1999). These organisations even though considered to be global companies are still heavily ‘nationally embedded’ in terms of their business activity (Hirst and Thompson 1996). Despite this; multinational corporations still have considerable economic and cultural power. The next section of this paper will talk about these companies, their branding and how they affect communities around the world. Globalisation & Multinational Companies Social Impact (How do they impact our local communities?) Branding: The main driving force for the growth of multi-national companies and the globalisation of their impact is in their brand (Klein 2001). In the mid-1980s a management theorists came up with a seemingly harmless idea that successful corporations must primarily produce brands, as opposed to products. This idea led to the exorbitant expansion of wealth and cultural influence we see in multinational companies today and over the past fifteen years (Klein 2001). ‘Brand builders are the new primary producers in our so-called knowledge economy’ (Klein 2001). Modern multinational companies have used a strait to the point yet brutally honest approach to branding over the past fifteen years. This approach is that companies should not disburse their limited capital on factories that will require physical maintenance, on equipment that will decay or on workers who will undoubtedly age and perish. As an alternative, they should focus that capital in the processes used to build their brands (Smith & Smith 2002). Multinationals: Multinational corporations are in actuality weak and vague organisations that generally display the corrosion of everyday values that afflict practically all late contemporary social institutions (Gray 1999). Diverse communities around the world are impacted and exploited by these multinational companies. They continually create or contract business in countries where they can profit from cheaper wages and assets. As discussed earlier this ‘can’ mean added wealth and infrastructure for that community. However, it quite often means increased levels of unemployment in the city/country where the industry was located beforehand. Not to mention that the wages payed and work environment in the communities where the operations are implemented are usually relatively poor (Smith & Smith 2002). Below are a few examples that articulate this situation perfectly: * ‘The numbers of people living on less than $2 per day has risen by almost 50% since 1980, to 2.8 billion-almost half the world’s population. And this is precisely the period that has been most heavily liberalized’ (World Bank 2000). * ‘The world’s poorest countries’ share of world trade has declined by more than 40 per cent since 1980 to a mere 0.4 per cent’ (UNCTAD 1999). This has been precisely the period in which the majority of multinational companies have grown exponentially, and is obviously a large factor resulting from their growth. Multinationals apart from affecting whole economic systems of countries and communities also attempt to create new markets within these communities. They search for new markets which have not yet been exploited in order to increase sales; it is typically carried out by creating new desires among target groups. The easiest target market for multinational companies to create new desires for is the child and youth market. Prized not only for the influence they have over adult spending but also for their own escalating spending power, the youth of today are one of the most profitable and influential markets (Kenway and Bullen 2001). Despite all this negative hype about multinational companies; they ‘have’ played a very significant role in the growth of globalisation. Around the world individuals and communities are linked much closer to each other and information and money flow quicker than ever before. Globalisation and it’s creation of multinationals has resulted in making goods and services in one part of the world increasingly available in ‘all’ parts of the world. International travel and communication is also much more frequent. In all globalisation has made life easier for those who can actually afford the luxuries of travel and international business. (Sourcewatch 2006). The Food Chain; Survival of the Biggest A case study of Latin America and the detrimental effects globalisation and multinational food retail companies have had on it’s local farmers. ‘Commodity prices have fallen dramatically, by some two thirds over the past 30 years, so that farmers have had to triple production just to maintain their incomes. One example among many: in just the last three years, Tanzanian farmers experienced a decline of 50% in the price of coffee.’ (OXFAM 2001) ‘While farmers earn less, consumers have been paying more.’ (O’Neill 2001) Although, according to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Latin America produces four times the amount of food needed to feed the population, 58 million people are still malnourished. Introduction: During the 1980’s a transformation within Latin America began; this transformation was one that would shape the future of farmers all over the continent for decades to come. For some it would be a positive change, however a large majority found it to be the opposite. The transformation I talk about is opening up of trade barriers within Latin America in order to allow food retailing companies access to the regions ‘un-commercialised’ and fertile lands. During the 1990’s the revolution in food retailing within Latin America accelerated extraordinarily as countries unbolted their economies to suit conditions for financing from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. As Latin America’s overall FDI significantly increased; multinational food retailers bought out local chains and entered joint ventures with the obstinate ones. The greatest fears for farmers in the region were realised when the multinational companies introduced unfair trade rivalry from American and European growers with weighted financial backing. Small farmers are constantly left to compete with the biggest world players as these food retailing chains (products of globalisation) move from large cities to smaller towns and from economically sound countries to ones still developing their economic and social systems (Dugger 2004). These chains are now the prevailing force in the trade of processed foods and they’re produce sales are growi ng to a similar reputation. When global food retail companies dominate a market, there are scenarios whereby it can be seen to be advantageous for all the citizens within that community. Such a scenario would be when the economy, of the region being taken over, is growing energetically and spawning decent jobs for globalisations losers, because in spite of everything the chains ‘are’ creating cheaper, cleaner and safer shopping environments for these societies. Samuel Morley, a visiting research fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), has written extensively on inequality and labour economics in Latin America, he stated that â€Å"It would be an appealing transformation of the sector if alternative jobs could be made available,† however these scenarios never seem to materialise in Latin America and other developing countries/continents around the world as they do not have economies of great strength. As Latin America’s population grows its economic situation trails further and further behind. In Latin America, 220 million of the total regional population of 500 million people are poor. The case study that I will shortly talk about outlines just how bad the situation in Guatemala is, Guatemala is actually one of Latin America’s ‘better off’ regions, with supermarkets controlling 10-15% of grocery sales. Therefore the case gives you an indication of what the more unfortunate farming communities, in Latin America, must have to endure. For example in Argentina supermarket chains control 30% of this industry and in Brazil; 50% (Dugger 2004). Rural markets shrink throughout the continent, even though the victims of globalisation are pushed to trade within them, these rural markets are slowly but surely lost in the black holes that we call multinational companies. Within a single decade Latin America’s farming communities have been transformed by food retail giants such as Ahold and Walmart. These multinational goliaths have transfigured food distribution by offering low prices, a range of choices and convenience; they are now also changing the face of food growing (Dugger 2004). This could seem positive to some, however it is far from that; there are thousands of Latin American farming communities who have been devastated by the unforseen and overwhelming challenges that these companies bring (Dugger 2004). The major visible impact that these changes have had within the farming communities over the past decade is the great increase in the number of, now penniless, farming migrants entering the urban slums of their own countries and crossing the American border to seek refuge from their new ‘corporately governed’ country side. Guatemala’s Local Farmers Suffer (Case): Within the serene confines of the extraordinarily fertile and incredibly poor Guatemala, supermarket giants have crushed farmers to the point where they are no longer able to maintain operations within the land they once called home. Guatemala was once, not long ago, a place where people swapped produce for service and service for produce, money ‘was’ required to sustain they’re everyday living, however, life was effortless and uncomplicated up until the multinational giants arrived on Latin American shores. Guatemalan man Mario Chinchilla would inspect his field of sickly tomatoes on a daily basis; he would labour all day trying to meet the requirements of the new supermarkets which had opened up in town, however no amount of labour could possibly turn his crop into the stout, flawless product that Guatemala’s leading supermarket chain offered to it’s customers (Dugger 2004). A better product at a cheaper price, it seems good all round doesn’t it, but at the end of the day it has ruined many people lives. The chain I talk about is a giant Dutch multinational company named Ahold (Worlds 3rd largest retailer). The Chain is so large it includes names such as Bi-Lo and Stop & Shop under its ‘assets’. For some time Mario headed a farmer’s cooperative that was managing to sell produce to the chain however this proved to be an ephemeral opportunity whereby the multinational chain ran away with the locals hopes and dreams, leaving them to sit in their unsold crops of rotting vegetables. The reason for this was because the multinational retailers require farmers who encompass the proficiency and capital to invest in modern farming technologies such as; ‘greenhouses, drip irrigation and pest control’ (Dugger 2004). â€Å"They wanted consistent supply without ups and downs,† said Mr Chinchilla. â€Å"We didn’t have the capacity to do it† (Dugger 2004). Inequality, rebellion and violent repression within Latin America has been a recurring problem for many decades, during the 1990’s there was already a gap between rich and poor and the supermarket chains have simply added to this gap. This time Latin America has tried a different (non-violent) approach. In order to fight for their right to live comfortably in their homeland farmers joined forces; there are rare success stories, however many (like Mario Chinchilla and his Co-op) have suffered a more common fate. In Guatemala there is a tiny farming community named Lo de Silva; more than 300 farmers who originally belonged to Mr. Chinchilla’s co-op, ‘the Association of Small Irrigation Users of Palencia’, were from this village (Dugger 2004). Out of those 300 farmers there are only 8 still enduring the torment that globalisation has brought them. These remaining farmers aren’t even able to sell to the supermarkets they sell their product to middle men for severely discounted prices; to top this off the only product the middlemen will accept from them is salad tomatoes. Mr. Chinchilla’s case is an ideal example that demonstrates how the opportunity of success for small farmers is a remote prospect to most. Small farmers are simply getting left behind due to their lack of market pull and marketing/operational techniques (Dugger 2004). A ‘survival of the biggest’ situation has been created – ‘only the big can serve the big; the small need not apply, as global companies wipe out local distinctions in establishing a level economic playing field.’ (Hannaford 2006). During the 1990’s food retail conglomerates went from controlling between 10 and 20 percent of the Latin American market to totally dominating it (Economist.com 1997). During this period, in Guatemala specifically, the quantity of supermarkets has more than doubled; as their share of food retailed has reached 35 percent. The smaller shops and open air markets still remain and retail a great deal of fruits and vegetables in Guatemala. For customers to leave these historically enriched and characterised markets and enter the newly opened supermarkets in the region, is to leave behind Guatemala and enter a commercialised shopping centre that could reside in Hong Kong or London, with it’s marked down jumbo packages and symmetrical fruits in plastic trays. None of this, however, matters unless the bottom line is understood. The bottom line is that the rules of the World Trade Organisation are actually taking second place in importance to the privately set standards of the food retail giants. Also pressures from the I.M.F. and the World Bank to allow greater foreign investment into Latin America were proposed to formulate more competitive economies for them; however it is obvious that this model didn’t have a community element at its centre. Hardships have come from; not only what I described previously (the fact that the farmers must sell they’re produce at much cheaper prices, better quality and in a more convenient matter) but also from the fact that that they are now competing with the rest of Latin America, the United States and even the world because trade borders have been opened to allow almost ‘anyone’ import and export capabilities. Rigid opposition from internationally renound growers is now a reality for Central and Latin American farmers; at a distribution centre, for a subsidiary company of Ahold in Guatemala City, shipments of ‘apples from Washington, pineapples from Chile, potatoes from Idaho and avocados from Mexico’ are brought in (Hannaford 2006). Conclusion Globalisation has positive and negative affects on our society. This paper has outlined in great detail the negative affects of globalisation and multinational food retailing companies on Latin America’s and the world’s small farmers. The reason for this is due to the fact that there were; only on occasion, very rare and unusual success stories to be found about smaller farmers succeeding in their sales to companies such as Ahold and Walmart, within Latin America. After researching farming communities’ around the globe, it can be deduced that Latin America is not alone in this battle to produce food and sell it at competitive prices, while still maintaining some sort of meaningful social existence. Asian, African and Indian farmers; have been heavily exploited. Even farmers within more developed countries such as Australia have had to sell their products at severely discounted prices in order to satisfy multinational company standards. Farmers world wide, are however, not alone. Traditional strategies of help to farmers that feel the hardships of globalisation, such as providing fertilizers and improved seeds, are no longer enough to enable them to sustain their businesses. Professors and agronomists are banding together to document trends and develop new methods of help that will allow the fleeing farmers of Latin America, Africa and Asia to compete with others in selling products to the multinationals. In the midst of the these methods a few techniques stand out, such as; regulations put upon the multinationals that require farmers be paid promptly, laws that restrain these companies from dominating entire markets (such as mergers of supermarket chains) and enhanced hygiene and convenience through technology at open-air markets. After reading this paper I hope you too can conclude it is important that societies living within the limitations of this amazing world are given the chance to experience life’s pleasures and break out of the chain of inevitable failures that multinational corporations have brought to them. Being given the chance to make an honest and fair living, is only basic compassion and mercy; two marvellous characterises that any individual can encompass. If multinational food retail companies and global companies in general were able to, in some way, display this, then Anti-Globalisation would be a much less used expression. References * Dugger, C. W., (2004) Foreign Desk Late Edition – Final, Section A, Page 1, Column 1, New York Times – December 28, Tuesday. (http://www.nytimes.com) * Economist.com, (1997) Survey: Business In Latin America – Back on the pitch, The Economist print edition. * Giddens, A., (1990) Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. * Graeber, D., (2002) New Left Review 13, January-February issue, ‘The New Anarchist’. * Gray, J., (1999) False Dawn. The delusions of global capitalism, London: Granta. 262 pages. * Hannaford, S., (Last updated 2006) Small farmers versus oligopolies: No contest, (http://www.oligopolywatch.com). * Harris, R. L., Halebsky, S., (1995) Capital, Power, and Inequality in Latin America, chapter: â€Å"The Global Context of Contemporary Latin American Affairs†, (Boulder. CO., Westview Press.) * Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D. and Perraton, J. (1999) Global Transformations – politics, economics and culture, Cambridge: Polity Press. * Hirst, P. and Thompson, G., (1996) Globalisation in Question. London: Polity Press. * Kenway, J. and Elizabeth Bullen, (2001) Consuming Children: Entertainment, Advertising and Education, Open University Press. * Klein, N., (2001) No Logo, London: Flamingo. 490 pages. * O’Neill, B., (2001) What’s eating Us? OXFAM News. (http://www.oxfam.ca/news/WorldFoodDay/Whats_eating_us.htm) * OXFAM. (2001) Briefing Paper No 9, November. (http://www.oxfam.org.uk/search?SearchableText=Briefing+Papers&submit.x=19&submit.y=8) * Smith, M. K. and Smith, M., (2002) ‘Globalization’ encyclopaedia infed. (www.infed.org/biblio/globalization.htm) * Sourcewatch 2006 Globalisation, (Centre for Media and Democracy) http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Globalization). * UNCTAD. (1999) Conference on Least Developed Countries. (http://www.unctad.org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=3073&lang=1) * United Nations. (1999) Human Development Report. * Weede, E., (2004) The Independent Review, Volume 9, number 2, ‘The Diffusion of Prosperity and Peace by Globalisation’. * World Bank. (2000) Global Economic Outlook Report. Washington: World Bank.(http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,menuPK:232599~pagePK:64133170~piPK:64133498~theSitePK:239419,00.html)